• What is your definition?
• In System Thinking:

–A particular way of organizing our thoughts about the world/problem/situation we are facing

–It is an organizing concept

• To better understand a system (the nature of the system and its environments)

–Machine Metaphor / Pre-Systems Metaphor

–Organic Metaphor

–Neuro-Cybernetic Metaphor

–Cultural Metaphor

–Political Metaphor

Machine Metaphor (Closed System) / Pre-Systems Metaphor View

• Emphasis on the efficiency of the parts
• It operates in a routine and repetitive fashion with a predefined set of activities, seeking efficiency to achieve goals
• • Useful if:

  –The tasks are straightforward & repetitive

  –Stable environment

  –E.g. armed forces, large franchise (fast food chains)

  • Consequence:

  –Lower adaptability of organization on volatile environment

Organic Metaphor (Open System) View

• Emphasis the human aspect of organizations
• Issues such as motivation (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs), leadership style, job enrichment, etc
• Organization as an organism to survive

• Useful if:

–Open relation to changing environment

–Responsiveness toward changes

–Complex environment (e.g. today turbulence environment)

• Consequence:

–Passively adapt rather than proactively Assume harmonious relation among people

Neuro-Cybernetic Metaphor  (Viable System) View

• Emphasis on Active Learning & control (organization as a brain)
• Focus on information processing and viability
• Depends on the ability to communicate and learn

• Useful if:

–Promote self-enquiry, self-criticism & encourage creativity

–Dynamic goal seeking

–High degree of uncertainty

–E.g. autonomous workgroups, innovative firms

• Consequence:

–Forget purpose of the parts (may not the same with the whole)

Cultural Metaphor

• Emphasis the organization as a collectivity of employee
• Assume employee has collaborative and community-like spirit
• Culture is a shared characteristics at all level of organization
• • Useful if:

  –Cohesion of shared values have impact on organizational development (need to be managed)

  –E.g. Done initially by Japanese firms

  • Consequence:

  –Can lead to explicit ideological control (feeling of manipulation, resentment, mistrust)

  –Takes time (culture)

  –Have no structure